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GEOFFREY CHAUCER
THE TOMB OF THE DUCHESS
n
a Master's Orals I asked the candidate to discuss Chaucer's
Book of the Duchess and Browning's "My Last Duchess."
Behind my question also lay the memory of a dream-like
church in the Cotswalds, Ewelme, where Chaucer's
grand-daughter, the Countess of Salisbury and the Duchess of
Suffolk, lies buried in an exquisite Gothic tomb worthy of a
bishop's simony or of Browning's poetry. This essay will
argue for 'Gothic' Chaucer, the Chaucer of the 'Sweet New
Style'. Let us take these connections and see where they
might lead us.
I: The Books of the Duchesses
haucer was
born to a London vintner, who lived in a "fair and large"
house there with carpets and embroidered bed hangings and
silver dishes counted by the dozen and other articles of
silver plate engraved with the family's arms.1 It is the type of setting
William Morris could describe. Then, as a young page,
Geoffrey Chaucer lived in the castles and palaces of John of
Gaunt, who, by his marriage with the Duchess Blanche, had
become Duke of Lancaster and who had already been Earl of
Richmond. When the Duchess Blanche died, Chaucer wrote his
first major poem, The
Book of the Duchess,
in which his elegy becomes, like the anonymous Pearl, paradoxically an epithalamium, where the
craft and alchemy of poetry restores the dead to life. The
text plays powerful games with clocks, stained glass
windows, books, hunts and puns. Chaucer married Philippa,
the daughter of Sir Paon de Ruet, whose other daughter was
Catherine Swynford. Philippa Chaucer had first served as
lady-in-waiting to Edward III's wife, Queen Philippa. Both
Catherine and Philippa were most closely attached to the
household of John of Gaunt, Catherine being the governess of
the Duke's children by first Blanche and later Constance of
Castille, and ultimately marrying the Duke herself. One of
these children was to become Henry IV of England.2
When John of Gaunt married Chaucer's
sister-in-law, Catherine de Ruet, it caused somewhat of a
scandal at court. Froissart tells us both of the event - and of
the courtiers' response to it:
Around that time the Duke of
Lancaster entered into a third marriage with a lady who had
been the daughter of a knight of Hainault called Sir Paon de
Ruet, in his day one of the knights of good Queen Philippa of
England, who had loved the Hainaulters because she was of
their nation. This lady, whom the Duke of Lancaster now
married, was called Catherine; in her youth she had been
placed in the household of the Duke and Duchess Blanche of
Lancaster. After Duchess Blanche had passed away and also
Madam Constance of Castile, daughter of King Peter of Spain,
whom the Duke of Lancaster married as his second wife and by
whom he had that daughter who became Queen of Spain; when,
then, this second Duchess Constance had died, the Duke of
Lancaster had maintained this lady, Catherine de Ruet, who for
her part had become married to an English knight. Both during
and after the knight's lifetime, Duke John of Lancaster had
always loved and maintained this lady Catherine, by whom he
had three children, two sons and a daughter. The elder son was
named John, otherwise Beaufort of Lancaster, and was a great
favorite with his father. The other's name was Henry; his
father the Duke sent him to the school at Oxford and made a
great jurist of him. This learned man was later Bishop of
Lincoln, which is the noblest and richest diocese in the whole
of England. Out of love for his children, the Duke of
Lancaster married their mother, Madam Catherine de Ruet, which
caused much astonishment in France and England, for she was of
humble birth compared to the other two ladies, Duchess Blanche
and Duchess Constance, whom the Duke had had as his wives
before her.
When the news of this marriage to Catherine de
Ruet reached the great ladies of England, such as the
Duchess of Gloucester, the Countess of Derby, the Countess
of Arundel and other ladies with royal blood in their veins,
they were surprised and shocked, considering it scandalous,
and said: `The Duke of Lancaster has quite disgraced himself
by marrying his concubine. And since she has got so far, it
will mean that she will rank as the second lady in England
when she comes.' They went on to say: `We will leave her to
do the honours all by herself. We will not go to any place
where she may be. It would really demean us too much if that
kind of duchess, who comes of humble stock and was the
Duke's concubine for a very long time, inside and outside
his marriage, were to take precedence over us. Our hearts
would burst with vexation, and rightly so.'
The two who had most to say about this were the
Duke and Duchess of Gloucester. They considered that the
Duke of Lancaster had overstepped all bounds when he took
his concubine to wife and said they would never recognize
her marriage or call her lady or sister. The Duke of York
soon got over it, for he was most often in the company of
the King and his brother of Lancaster. The Duke of
Gloucester was of different stuff, for he respected no one's
opinions, although he was the youngest of all the brothers
[the King's uncles]. He was inclined by nature to be proud
and overbearing and he was always in dis-agreement at the
King's councils, unless they went exactly as he liked.
This Catherine de Ruet remained Duchess of
Lancaster the rest of her life. She was the second lady in
England and elsewhere after the Queen and she had a perfect
knowledge of court etiquette because she had been brought up
in it continually since her youth. She loved the Duke of
Lancaster and the children she had with him, and she showed
it in life and in death.3
The Duchess's
sister, Chaucer's wife, Philippa de Ruet, does not seem to
have to have gained as much recognition among Chaucer's circle
or among later Chaucer scholars, as had Catherine de Ruet.
From Chaucer's own joking and clerical references to marriage
we tend to envision her as more of an Alice of Bath. And, to
examine those references, let us now turn to the figure of
Chaucer's Arch-Wife.
II: Alice's Books and Tombs
haucer is
that oxymoron, a misogynist feminist. He, like Chrêtien de
Troyes and Andreas Capellanus, had to write for women patrons,
first for Duchess Blanche, translating for her Deguileville's
Pélèrinages' ABC,
then for Queen Anne of Bohemia, wife to Richard II. She had
been shocked by Troilus and
Criseyde: so he wrote Legend of Good Women at her command. But he
is also heir to all the misogyny conveyed in his Clerks of
Oxenforde's books, whether carried on pilgrimage to Canterbury
in black and red covers, or read to the Wife at home in Bath.
Could, in that argument in the kitchen in Bath, be reflected
Philippa de Ruet's own rage at Chaucer's lack of attention
towards her when he is for ever pouring upon books? Certainly
the Wife desires that her husbands be sexually attentive,
tearing pages from and even burning their books, where they
are not so. Elsewhere, I have argued that that scene in the
kitchen in Bath comments upon the entirety of the Canterbury
Tales as book, encoding within itself its own negative
reader response, drawing the analogy to the same action
performed by the red-garbed figure to the extreme left in the
Florentine pilgrimage painting, the Via Veritatis in the Spanish Chapel, in
Santa Maria Novella, painted with funds given in the time of
plague.4
What is
especially interesting is that Chaucer uses two styles, the
high style for the court, a low style for the people. So also
had Dante, who had spoken of the need to use the low, rather
than the high, style.5 Similarly
do we see in the Tres
Riches Heures du Duc de Berry the use of both styles, giving us the cardboard and
Gothic ceremoniousness of the aristocracy, and the detailed
and Romanesque reality of the life of the peasants. Both the
tenets of Christianity and of Boethius, and the greater box
office of the Commons, dictate that the low style should be
used in preference to the high. Besides, we see from the
arguments of William J. Brandt, in The Shape of Medieval History, and in Barbara Tuchman, in A Distant Mirror: The
Calamitious Fourteenth Century, that aristocrats, living in their world of stance,
lacked rich personalities. They are clothes horses, not
seemingly of flesh and blood. Enguerrand de Coucy in placed
against the backdrop of a fascinating and rich tapestry, but
he is himself one-dimensional. Chaucer, in order to write of
his wife, safely downgrades her into the rank of the
Commons. But in reality Chaucer's household is aristocratic
and by no means middle class.
He even sarcastically jokes with his figure
of the Wife not building an aristocrat's sarcophagus for her
dead and bourgeois husband when she comes home from her
Jerusalem pilgrimage.
He died whan I cam fro
Jerusalem,
And lith ygrave under the roode
beem,
Al is his tomb noght so curyus
As was the sepulcre of hym
Daryus,
Which that Appelles wroghte
subtilly;
It nys but wast to burye hym
preciously
Let hym fare wel; God yeve his
soule reste!
He is now in his grave and in his cheste.6 III.495-502
There are Chaucer
scholars who believe Jankyn and Alice murdered her husband.7 Perhaps the tomb is verbally
erected from guilt? Perhaps Chaucer believes that his wife
would have liked to have murdered him? Certainly, both
Chaucers, husband and wife, would have been likely to have
known of similar murders taking place around them in the
aristocracy. A most famous one in Gower and in Shakespeare
is that in 1397 of Thomas Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester.
Froissart tells us of him:
He had conceived such a hatred
for the King that he could find nothing to say in his favour.
In spite of the fact that, with his brother, the Duke of
Lancaster, he was the greatest man in England and ought to
have taken a leading part in the government of the realm, he
showed no interest in it. When the King sent for him, he went
if it suited him, but more often he stayed away. If he did go,
he was the last to arrive and the first to leave. As soon as
he had given his opinion, he insisted on its being accepted
without question, then took his leave immediately and mounted
his horse to ride back to Pleshey, a place in Essex thirty
miles from London where he owned a fine castle. It was there
that he spent most of his time.
[He
plots against King Richard II. The Earl of Salisbury gives him
a manuscript of Brunetto
Latino's Li Livres dou Tresor. Richard invites
him away alone from Pleshy, and he is next taken to London,
then Calais. His copy of Li Livres dou Tresor was
similarly seized.]
When the Duke of Gloucester had
been taken into the castle of Calais and found himself shut in
there and deprived of his attendants, he began to feel very
afraid. He said to the Lord Marshall: "Why have I been
spirited out of England and brought here? You seem to be
treating me as a prisoner . . . " "Sir," replied the Earl
Marshall, ". . . My lord the King is a little displeased with
you at the moment. He wishes you to stay here and put up with
our company for a time. You will do that until I receive
further instructions, which I hope will be soon. As for your
own displeasure, I am very sorry about it and I wish I could
relieve it. But I have my oath to the King, which I am bound
in honour to obey."
That was all the Duke could get from him and
concluding from other signs that he noticed one day, that
his life was in danger, he asked a priest who had already
sung mass for him to hear his confession. He confessed at
some length, kneeling before the altar in a pious frame of
mind, devout and contrite. He prayed and asked God's mercy
for all the things he had done and repented of all his sins.
It was indeed high time for him to purge his conscience, for
death was even nearer to him than he thought.
According to my information, just at the
hour when the tables were laid for dinner in the castle of
Calais and he was about to wash his hands, four men rushed
out from a room and, twisting a towel around his neck,
pulled so hard on the two ends that he staggered to the
floor. There they finished strangling him, closed his eyes
and carried him, now dead, to a bed where they undressed his
body. They placed him between two sheets, put a pillow under
his head and covered him with fur mantles. Leaving the room,
they went back into the hall, ready primed with their story,
and said this: that the Duke had had an apoplectic fit while
he was washing his hands and had been carried to his bed
with great difficulty. This version was given out in the
castle and the town. Some believed it, but others not.8
John Gower
also writes of the event, calling the murdered Duke the
"Swan" in his triadic animal allegory.9 During this period King Richard
II's payments to Chaucer are in arrears and Chaucer is
seriously in debt. When King Henry IV, John of Gaunt's son,
accedes to the throne, all Chaucer's annuities are restored
to him. Interestingly, Henry IV, while in exile as the Earl
of Derby, had made many of the same pilgrimages as those of
the Knight in the Canterbury
Tales, which are
shadowed in a woman's form by those of the Wife, in turn,
modeled upon and parodying those of the powerful Saint
Birgitta of Sweden.
But let us now turn to the real tombs of
Chaucer's family. His own, of course, is in Westminster Abbey in
the Poets' Corner. But it is not there because of his poetic
creations of such figures as the Wife of Bath. He is buried
there because he is brother-in-law to John of Gaunt and
therefore related to the King. Chaucer's poetry can be low in
style; his rank and that of his family is elite.
III: The Tomb of the Duchess Alice
n the
Cotswalds a church was built when Alice Chaucer, granddaughter
to Geoffrey Chaucer, married William de la Pole, first Duke of
Suffolk. This church and the Manor of Ewelme were inherited by
Alice Chaucer from her mother, Matilda Burghersh, who had
married the poet's son, Thomas Chaucer. Both Thomas
(1367-1434) and Matilda Chaucer (+1436) were buried here, side
by side, in a chapel in honor of St. John, roofed by angels,
with IHS (Jesus in Greek) covering the walls and with the
families' arms upon the floor tiles, the figures of Thomas and
Matilda being inscribed in brass, commemorating them. Coats of
arms in the stained glass and on the tombs include those of
John of Gaunt, whose third wife was Chaucer's wife's sister.
Thynne's edition of Chaucer's Works notes:10
Thomas Chaucer, the last heire
male of the Chaucers, and owner of Ewhelme and Donnington
Castle, the inheritance of the Chaucers, lieth buried in a
black marble tombe in a faire Chappell in the parish church of
Ewhelme, in the south side of the Quier, with this Epitaph:
Hic iacet Thomas Chaucer Armiger, quondam dominus istius
villae, et patronus istius Ecclesiae, qui obiit 18, die mensis
Novembr. anno Dom. 1434: & Matilda uxor eius, quae obiit
28 die mensis Aprilis anno Dom. 1436.
Thomas and Matilda Chaucer,
Tomb Brasses, Ewelme
Their daughter,
Alice Chaucer, born in 1404, had been affianced first to Sir
John Philip (+1415), then she married Thomas Montague, Earl of
Salisbury, who died in battle in France in 1428, and she
lastly married William de la Pole, who, earlier had been
defeated in battle by Joan of Arc, captured by the French,
then ransomed, then, as Duke of Suffolk, had attained great
power, ruling England with Margaret of Anjou during the
incapacity of Henry VI, and was then treacherously beheaded in
1450.
Alice's son,
John, the second Duke of Suffolk, at her death in 1475, placed
in the church at Ewelme a most exquisite tomb to honor his
mother. Sculpted out of alabaster it shows Alice in nun's
garb,11 a ducal crown upon her head,
the Garter upon her left fore-arm,12
her
hands folded in prayer, while beneath her, again sculpted in
alabaster, lies her cadaver in death, partly wrapped in its
shroud, as a momento mori. Between the two figures a
chest holds the actual remains of the Duchess. Painted on its
underside are scenes that escaped the Reformation's
iconoclasm, of the Annunciation to the Virgin by the Angel
Gabriel, Saints Mary Magdalen and John the Baptist.
Alice Chaucer, wimpled as a nun, with ducal coronet
Her cadavre sculpted in alabaster
The first edition of Chaucer's Works,
edited by William Thynne and dedicated to King Henry VIII, also
describes the Duchess's tomb:
This Alice wife of Duke William
surviving her husband, was after buried in the parish church
of Ewhelme, on the South side of the high altar, in a riche
tombe of Alabaster, with an image in the habite of a Vowesse,
and Duchesse crowned, lying on the same tombe: And another
image under the tomb, so neare as it may be, like unto her at
the time of her death, with this Epitaph: Orate pro anima
serenissima principissae Aliciae Suffolkiae, huius Ecclesiae
patrone, et primae fundatricis huius Eleemosinariae, quae
obiit 10 die mensis Maii, anno Domini 1475.
The church is not
built in Cotswald style but instead in the East Anglian style
of the Duke's native Suffolk. It has flint walls, and, in St.
John's Chapel, an exquisite angel ceiling, like that at Bury
St. Edmunds. The font cover is an immensely tall (ten and a
half feet), delicately sculptured Gothic pinnacle, so
perfectly balanced that it can be raised and lowered with one
finger, which was given to the church by John, Duke of
Suffolk, at his mother's death.
Ewelme Baptismal Font
Connected with the church, built by the
Suffolks' charity, are also a school and an almshouse, its rooms
for thirteen pensioners built around a peaceable quadrangle down
steps from the church, the school and the almshouse both still
in use to this day, the school, founded in 1437, being the
oldest church school in England using its original building. The
Thynne edition describes Ewelme's church and charities:
This William and his wife
translated and encreased the Manor place of Ewehelme, and
builded there a parish Church, and an hospital called
Godshouse, for two priests and thirteene poore men to be
sustained for ever. One of the priests to be master of the
Almes-house and Almespeople, them to instruct: the other
Priest a Schoolmaster, freely to teach the children of the
Tenants of the said Lordship their Grammar: and either of them
to have .x. pounds by the yeere. One of the poore men to be
called Minister to present the faults of the other to the
Master, and to ring their common Bell to service, and to have
sixteenepence the weeke, and the rest fourteene pence.
John, Duke of
Suffolk, was to marry Elizabeth Plantagenet, sister to Edward
IV and Richard III, the Yorkist kings. John and Elizabeth's
three sons died supporting the Yorkist cause against the new
Tudor monarchs, as did Elizabeth's father, Richard of York.
Her daughter by the earlier marriage, Alice Montague, married
Richard Nevill, their son Richard marrying Ann Beauchamp and
becoming Earl of Warwick.13
IV: The Duchess's Chantry
The Duchess Alice
was born four years after Chaucer's death. Nevertheless, it is
perhaps significant that her father, Thomas Chaucer, appears
to have had her be named after his father's fictional
creation, his Alice of Bath. (We recall that James Joyce's
grandson was named Stephen.) Yet two more different people can
scarcely be imagined. Chaucer's Alice is bourgeois and lusty,
not unlike the monastic wood-carved figures on misericords
which reflect the grotesques of manuscript marginalia; Alice
Chaucer is aristocratic and, after the deaths of three
husbands, a widow vowed to chastity, a consecrated votary. To
find Alice Chaucer's true counterpart we must return to the
Book of the Duchess's Duchess, Blanche, first wife to John,
Duke of Gaunt, Chaucer's patron, and to Queen Anne of Bohemia,
first wife to King Richard II, both of whom were mourned and
loved by all.
Chaucer built a
chantry of words in his Canterbury Tales, asking that
we, who read that text, pray for his soul. His grandaughter
built a chantry where thirteen almsmen, to this day, pray for
her soul, her son in turn having that request be sculpted as
well upon her tomb.14 We are more
likely to find copies of the Canterbury Tales, and
heedlessly disparage its consummation, than we are to find the
unique and sleepy Cotswalds village church; but, if and when
we do stumble upon the latter, that chantry request will be
heeded.
Notes
1Chaucer Life-Records, edited, Martin M.
Crow and Clair C. Olson (Oxford: Clarendon, 1966), p. 11.
2 Information on Philippa Chaucer for the years
1366-86 is to be found in Chaucer Life-Records, pp.
67-93.
3 Froissart, Chronicle, trans. Geoffrey Brereton
(Harmonsdworth: Penguin, 1968), pp. 418-420.
4 Julia Bolton Holloway, The Figure of the Pilgrim: A
Study of Dante, Langland and Chaucer (New York: Peter Lang, 1993),
pp. 250-253, Plate XVIIIa; Millard Meiss, Painting in Florence and Siena
after the Black Death: The Arts, Religion and Society in the
Mid-Fourteenth-Century
(New York, 1951).
5 De vulgari eloquentia I.1; Letter
to Can Grande.
6 While Dryden translated the Wife's Tale, it was left to Pope to do her
Prologue, in which he changed Darius'
tomb to Mausolus' at Rhodes: "A tomb, indeed, with fewer Sculptures grac'd,
Than that Mausolus' Pious Widow plac'd, Or Where inshrine'd to
Great Darius was" (lines 247-249): Alexander Pope, The
Rape of the Lock and Other Poems, ed. Geoffrey Tillotson
(London: Methuen, 1962), p. 69.
7 Beryl Rowland, "On the Timely
Death of the Wife of Bath's Fourth Husband," Archiv, 209 (1973), 273-82; Dolores Palomo, "The
Fate of the Wife of Bath's Bad Husbands," Chaucer Review, 9 (1975), 303-319.
8 Pp. 430-431. See also John Gower. Woodstock's
son is Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who established the fine
Humanist library at Oxford. When Woodstock died, Brunetto
Latino's Li Livres dou Tresor, against tyranny, was in
his possession; it had been given to him by William Montague,
Earl of Salisbury. Manuscript today is in Duke Humfrey,
Bodleian Library. Christine de Pizan's son would be page to
Earl of Salisbury.
9 The Major Latin Works of John Gower: The
Voice of One Crying and the Tripartite Chronicle, edited
and translated, Eric W. Stocton (Seattle: University of
Washington Press, 1962), p. 303. It is also possible that the
same poison was administered to him as was used in the Nun's
Priest's Tale, which brings about symptoms and death of
and by suffocation.
10 The Workes of Geffray Chaucer newly
printed, with dyuers workes which were neuer in print
before, etc. London: Thomas Godfray, 1532, ff.
xiii-ccclxxxiii. [Ed. William Thynne, Preface, Sir Brian
Tuke.]
11 The dress of medieval
consecrated widows and nuns were one and the same, nuns
being Christ's widows, vowed to chastity and in mourning for
him. The ceremony for the Consecration of Widows is
described in Edward L. Cutts, Scenes and Characters from the Middle Ages (London: Virtue, 1902), pp.
21-22.120-194.
12 Alice was given permission to wear the
insignia of the Garter, "at the ensuing Feast of S. George,
1432." Queen Victoria sent to Ewelme to find out how ladies
ought to wear the Garter and followed the example upon Alice
Chaucer's tomb.
13 Guide to St. Mary's Church, Ewelme, and the
Almshouse and the School (Abingdon, Oxford, n.d.);
Peter Renshaw, A Guide to the Memorials and Brasses of
Ewelme Church (n.p.: 1987); Chaucer's Works, ed.
Thynne; Bodleian Library, Oxford, catalogue entry: "Deposit.
Deeds. Ewelme, Conspectus of MSS Deposited Deeds Ewelme with
Bodleian shelfmarks."
14 For a bourgeois version of such
a chantry, such as the Wife of Bath might have tried to
build, see Anthony Luttrell, "Englishwomen as Pilgrims to
Jerusalem: Isolda Parewastell, 1365," in Equally in God's Image: Women
in the Middle Ages,
ed. Julia Bolton Holloway, Joan Bechtold, Constance S.
Wright (New York: Peter Lang, 1990), pp. 184-197.
Go to:
Brunetto Latino and Dante
Alighieri
I Bankers
and Their Books: Italian Manuscripts in French Exile
II Brown
Ink, Red Blood: Brunetto Latino and the Sicilian Vespers
III The
Vita Nuova's Pilgrimage Paradigms
IV
Stealing Hercules' Club: Inferno XXV's Metamorphoses
Geoffrey Chaucer
V Black and
Red Letter Chaucer
VI Fact
and Fiction: Women in Love
VII
Convents, Courts and Colleges
VIII The Tomb of
the Duchess Alice
Terence, Dante,
Boccaccio and Chaucer
IX God's Plenty: Terence in Dante,
Boccaccio, Chaucer and
Shakespeare Newest
Epilogue: Attica State Prison,
Boethius the Exile, Dante the Pilgrim
This is a Chapter from the Book, Sweet New
Style: Brunetto Latino, Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer,
created, 1993; 'Sweet New Style' e-book Website
created, Pentecost 2003-10
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A WEBSITE
ON FLORENCE © JULIA BOLTON HOLLOWAY, AUREO ANELLO ASSOCIAZIONE,
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BESSARION
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NEW STYLE: BRUNETTO LATINO, DANTE
ALIGHIERI,
& GEOFFREY
CHAUCER
|| VICTORIAN:
WHITE
SILENCE:
FLORENCE'S
'ENGLISH'
CEMETERY
|| ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING
|| WALTER
SAVAGE LANDOR
|| FRANCES
TROLLOPE
|| ABOLITION
OF SLAVERY
|| FLORENCE IN SEPIA
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BOOK CONFERENCE
PROCEEDINGS
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IV,
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, VIII, IX, X || MEDIATHECA
'FIORETTA
MAZZEI'
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